Ineval

Sample Text

Ičufsos gop=n wars dagel=vas=l čakžaŋ=eŋ. Izekos mo,

Ičufso

-s

[gop

war

-s

dagel

=vas

]=l

čakžaŋ

=eŋ

encounter.unexpectedly:PERF

-3S:IMPERF

man

=NOM.AGT

go:PART

-3S:IMPERF

field

=LOC

=NOM.NAGT

tiger

=ACC

A man going in a field unexpectedly encountered a tiger.

I. Phonology

I.1 Vowels

Practical Orthography

X-Sampa

	Front		Back
High	i			u
Mid		e	o
Low	a

	Front		Back
High	i			u
Mid		E	O
Low	6

I.2 Consonants

In the tables below, where appropriate, pairs are given of voiceless and voiced.

Practical Orthography

X-Sampa

	Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Plosive	p	t d	c j	k g	'
Fricative	f v	s z	š ž		h
Affricate			č j
Nasal	m	n		ŋ
Approximant	w		y
Liquid		l	r

	Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Plosive	p	t d	c J\	k g	?
Fricative	f v	s z	S Z		h
Affricate			tS dZ
Nasal	m	n		N
Approximant	w		j
Liquid		l	r

I.3 Remarks

Main stress is on the second syllable for words of three or more syllables; otherwise, main stress is on the initial syllable. (There is secondary stress every third syllable thereafter.)
All vowels (a,e,i,o,u) as well as m,n,ŋ,l,r can act as syllabus nuclei.

II. Nominal Morphology

III.1 Case Marking

Case is marked on noun-phrases via proclitics:

Case	Particle
Nominative, Agentive	=n(u)
Nominative, Nonagentive	=(a)l
Accusative	=(e)ŋ
Dative/Benefactive	=ru
Oblique/Locative	=vas
Genitive	=(a)m
Vocative	=lu

The parenthesized vowels are only used to split otherwise identical consonants.

III.2 Pronouns

Person		Nom.Vol.Agt.	Nom.Nonvol.Agt.	Nom.Nonagt.	Acc.	Dat.	Loc.	Benef.	Gen.	Oblique
1	Sing.	kinda	kin	kil	kiŋ	kiki	kiga	kiro	kam	kimva
	Dual	kunda	kun	kul	kuŋ	kuki	kuga	kuro	kamu	kimvu
	Plur.	kint	kins	kit	kut	kikit	kigit	kurot	kami	kimvi
2	Sing.	vinda	vin	vil	viŋ	vivi	viga	viro	vam	vima
	Dual	vunda	vun	vul	vuŋ	vuki	vuga	vuro	vamu	vuma
	Plur.	vint	vint	vit	vut	viti	vigit	vito	vami	vimi
3	Sing.	mo	mo	ma	moŋ	maro	miga	maro	mam	miva
	Dual	mu	mu	mu	muŋ	muru	muga	muru	mum	muga
	Plur.	tom	tom	tom	mot	mato	migit	mato	mant	mit
4	Sing.	no	no	na	noŋ	naru	gana	naru	gana	gana
	Dual	nu	nu	nu	nuŋ	nuru	gunu	nuru	gunu	gunu
	Plur.	ton	ton	ton	not	narut	gono	narut	gono	gono
Question		zinda	zin	zil	ziŋ	ziri	zigi	ziro	zim	zimva

III.3 Etc.

Comparative: particle is =yigel, or Adj+jem; (comparand is in Oblique case).
Superlative: particle is =dov'el, or ha+Adj+zem; (comparand is in Oblique case).
Equative: particle is =wa'lel, or y(i)+Adj+lel; (comparand is in Oblique case).

III. Verbal Morphology

Verb tense/aspect/mood is formed by combining the appropriate verb stem with one of the following declensions. Every verb has six stems: Present, Perfective, Subjunctive, Participial, Deponent, Passive.

Imperfect Declension
	Singular	Dual	Plural
1	-ki	-uki	-kit
2	-ov	-uv	-iv
3	-s	-u	-t
4	-i	-wi	-it
Q	-co

Aorist Declension
	Singular	Dual	Plural
1	-k	-ku	-ka
2	-sla	-slu	-sal
3	-v	-vu	-va
4	-f	-fu	-fa
Q	-čo

Future Declension
	Singular	Dual	Plural
1	-mik	-muk	-nok
2	-miv	-muv	-nos
3	-mis	-mus	-no
4	-mi	-mwi	-nol
Q	-m(o)no

Habitual Declension
	Singular	Dual	Plural
1	-jeŋki	-jeŋku	-jeŋkit
2	-jeŋov	-jeŋuvu	-jeŋiv
3	-jens	-jeŋ	-jent
4	-jeŋi	-jemi	-jeŋit
Q	-jano

Negative Declension
	Singular	Dual	Plural
1	-(a)gak	-(a)gaku	-(a)gat
2	-(a)gav	-(a)gavu	-(a)git
3	-(a)z	-(a)zu	-(a)d
4	-(i)j	-(i)ju	-(i)d
Q	-(o)ŋono

The Habitual declension is also called Continuative and Iterative.

Present Stem:
- + Imperfect = I love/I do love
- + Aorist = I loved/I did love
- + Future = I will love
- + Habitual = I will be loving
- + Negative = I don't love
Perfective Stem:
- + Imperfect = I loved(completed action)
- + Aorist = I have/had loved
- + Future = I will have loved
- + Habitual = I used to love
- + Negative = I didn't love
Subjunctive Stem:
- + Imperfect = I would love
- + Aorist = I would have loved
- + Future = I would love
- + Habitual = I would be loving
- + Negative = I wouldn't love
Participial Stem:
- + Imperfect = loving
- + Aorist = having loved
- + Future = will be loving
- + Habitual = (usual) loving
- + Negative = non-loving
Deponent Stem: infinitives/dependent verbs/etc.

Causative: je- / jil- / je- / ji- / (*) / j(e)-;
(*) for the deponent stem, if it begins with ya-, then this is changed to je-, otherwise ja- is prepended.
Applicative: du(r)- / dur- / do- / du- / (*) / d(o)-;
(*) for the deponent stem, if it begins with ya-, then this is changed to dwa-, otherwise du- is prepended.

IV. Syntax

Basic VSO word order.
Question words, adverbs, etc. go in Wackernagel's S2 position.

IV.2. Indefinite Pronouns

SK,SU,I/NS = bordo-
I/NS,COND,COMP,FC = aŋi-
QU,IN = cama-
IN,DN,COMP = klepo-
ARB = funzi-

Person = -pfuš
Thing = -muč
Place = -gej
Time = -...

V. Examples

jilicmok I caused to love
jecemki I cause to love
cemmik I will love
icmomik I will have loved
cemki I love
cemk/icmok I loved
cemzark my having loved
čemk I would have loved
cemki yagaki I love to eat
icmojeŋki I used to eat
negki yalak I want to go
olok I went
ecemlarki I am loved
jecemlark I caused to be loved
cemagak moŋ I don't love him/her.
čemagak moŋ I won't/wouldn't love him/her.
icmogak moŋ I didn't love him/her.
ecemlaragak maro I was/am/will not be loved by him/her.
flomjeŋki fum=ŋ I'm a fum-drinker.
flomjeŋki fum jičlo=ŋ I drink cold fum.
filmos fum kam=ŋ He drank my fum.
filmo'uv Jarol=m fum=ŋ You (2) drank Jarol's fum.
filmočo zinda fum kam=ŋ? Who drank my fum?
fum haziŋizem sweetest fum
fum=vas jičlojem colder than fum
fum=vas ijičlo'el as cold as fum
Havokzar New City
Jeganzar King's City
Fumkozar Fum City
Gejwakzar Far City
Jaromkozar Jharol's City
Yari peŋkel. It is raining.
Yarf peŋkel. It rained.
Filmočo camapfuš=n fum kam=ŋ? Did somebody drink my fum?

VI. Sample Lexicon

VI.1 Verbs

Verb stems are given according to: Present/Perfect/Subjunctive/Participial/Deponent/Passive

cem / icmo / čem / cemzar / yacma / ecemlar: love
ag / igo / hag / gazar / yaga / agar: eat
sal / islo / šal / sazlar / yasla / salar: speak
kor / ikro / kohor / kozar / yakra / okolar: build/make
wal / olo / al / war / yala / awar: go
juk / ijku / juk / jukzar / yajma / ujuklar: hit
flom / filmo / folom / flomzar / falmo / folomlar: drink
neg / iŋgo / nig / negzar / yaŋga / eneglar: want/desire/need
y(i) / iya / ha / har / ya / yar: be
čufes / ičufso / čufeš / čufežar / yačufsa / ečufeslar: encounter unexpectedly
ze'ek / izeko / že'ek / zekzar / yazeke / zeklar: flee/run

VI.2 Nouns, Adjectives

jičlo: cold
fum: fermented honey & berry drink
kozar: city
jegan: king
ziŋi: sweet
havo: new
muča: old
gejwa: far
gop: man
pevuš: head
dagel: field
čakžaŋ: tiger
peŋkel: "raining"

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Apollo Hogan, Berkeley, California, USA