Dozhu:n

Sample Text

Sample Text (Babel Text)

Bope:roy boghe:merox we:noy dozhu:ner zhe:ghoy dozha:per pihjojih:kat. Pe:rozhatped qi:xkish viqih:gu shi:narasseh co:reter gi:qas gina:gat - givi:zhat. Giduzhash "cici ritamener sihklokamok - sihcicetamok." Ritamenun pamnafahb kalofun treyazh gigerat. Giduzhash "cici dologer jafener - dwo bonejonishsheh sihklokamok gaqazhzheh xihgibomihgerakamo gaqazhzheh boperoy boghemerish nujo nihxekam." Gaqavveh mihrihmihlajushed perozhateddeh pahdologer pahjafener - dwo gizhogha - xihgizhuvat. Giduzhi "wenoy dozhunap xihdozha digeraj gaqushsheh nihmoghderahbka nihcuserjlonji. Dozhunemka sihgizhoghmihr - sihgizhmefmihriht gaqazhzheh nihqicoynash." Gaqindeh mihrihmihlajushed giqin boperoy boghemerish nujo gixekmihriht dologer bikloki. Gaqingeh babelap gzhakit gaqigeh giqasseh mihrihmihlajushed boperoy boghemerox dozhuner gizhmefmihriht. Giqin boperoy boghemerish nujo gixekmihriht.

I. Phonology/Orthography

I use the X-Sampa scheme for encoding IPA symbols into ASCII.

I.1 Vowels

(American, Colorado) English approximations to vowel sounds: i `need'; e `lay'; ah `mad'; a `caught'; o `coke'; u `noodle'; ih `sit'/`soot'; eh `bug'/`mull'.

I.2 Consonants

• The orthographic 'n' may indicate a wide range of articulation points, depending on the context.
• Note that 'q' is inconsistently notated in the orthography.
• (The change from Govun to Dozhun: r=l, b=j, d=g, p=c, t=k, v=zh, f=sh, z=gh, s=x)
• In the formal register, there is usually prenasalization of words and stressed and word-final vowels are nasalized. Thus, for example, ka:fta > [^Nka:~fta~] cuvixe:lend > [^Jcuvixe:~lend]

English approximations to consonant sounds: p `spit'; b `babble'; t `star'; d `saddle'; c `tree'; j `dry'; k `skunk'; g `giggle'; q ` apple'; f `fat'; v `over'; s `sat'; z `ozone'; sh `shape'; zh `azhure'; x `Loch'; gh `haggle' (soft); h `ahead'; m `moon'; n `ran'/`in yer'/`rang'; w `womb'; y `year'; l `ball'; r `larder';

II. Nominal Morphology

II.1. Theta-roles

ka:fta crih:sheda a bird is keeping itself afloat (Agent)
ka:fta crih:shera a bird floats (Theme)
ka:fta crih:shema a bird is kept afloat (Patient)
ka:ftap crih:shero I am floating like a bird (Manner)
ka:ftun crih:shero I float by means of a bird (Instrument)
ka:ftush crih:shero I am floating for the sake of a bird (Beneficiary)

The basic Theta-markers are given in the following table, they are suffixed both to nominal elements (nouns, adjectives, etc.) and also to verbs and various other elements of the language. The Full markers are the ones used in day-to-day usage. The Archaic and Formal registers are discussed elsewhere. Nouns and adjectives tend to drop word-final vowels when affixed directly with a Theta-marker.

Agent
The prototypical Agent is definite, animate, sentient creature who willingly, actively, bodily does the verbal action. For example: cu-ka:fted qih:g-repe: the bird is flying; the bird is using its own power, of its own will, to propel itself through the air. You would not use the Agent role if the bird was thrown through the air by something else.

Patient
The prototypical Patient is an inanimate object which is physically or otherwise materially affected by the verbal action, if animate, the Patient is typically an unwilling or involuntary participant. For example, ka:ftem cu-ce:xta gitu:xem the dog bit a bird.; the bird is most likely unwilling quite affected by the dog's bite.

Experiencer
The Experiencer is typically that which sees, hears, or otherwise experiences the verbal action but is not directly affected: cu-ce:xtey pshe:kot ju:fap-noxo:. The dog smells flowers..

Theme

Recipient
cu-ce:xtuk giga:go I gave (it) to the dog;

Beneficiary
cu-ce:xtush gice:to I baked (it) for the dog;

Instrument
Instrument indicates the tool or instrument used by the agent to accomplish the verbal act: mo:rokun ghro:qazhdenehlo I am snake-hunting with a hammer; where the hammer is being used in the actual hunting.

Location
The Location is the spatial location where the verbal action occurs. This is usually a static location, i.e. the verbal action takes place entirely in the Location: bo-le:tas giba:ypebo I layed an egg in the river; Note that often Location is further specified by an appropriate local post-position.

Path
bo-le:tac via the river;

Source

Destination

Purpose
ka:ftazh cu-ti:xta joce:red The cat sang for bird.;

Manner
wu:ktap ra:duftap-gaj joqih:go-kampe: I was dancing like a duck or a frog;

Extent

Temporal
Temporal is used to mark expressions indicating when something occured: ni:skav cu-ka:fta pihce:red the bird was singing at night; night is the time in which the singing occurred. Note that spatial expressions are not used in a temporal sense.

Possessor

Negative

Result

Cause

Force

Comitative

Measure/Material

II.2. ThetaP-roles

There is one idiosyncratic formation: the SourceP marker is -ingeh (the expected marker would be *"-inneh").

There are certain constructions (e.g. possessive) that require ThetaP-markings.

The distinction between Theta and ThetaP can be subtle. Nominals marked with ThetaP-markers tend to be viewed as less integral to the action. They may be incidental to the event described. For example, in

mo:rokun ji:kmema I use my hammer to hit it.
(LIT: hammer-INSTR hit-1-PAT-3)

mo:rokunneh ji:kmema I hit it with a hammer.
(LIT: hammer-INSTR_P hit-1-PAT-3)

Examples:

	Theta	ThetaP
Instrument:	mo:rokun ji:kmema	mo:rokunneh ji:kmema
	I hammer it.	I hit it with a hammer.
Temporal:	ni:skav gige:ro	ni:skavveh gige:ro
	I did my night-thing.	I did something at night.
Agent:	wu:kted gitu:xok	wu:kteddeh gitu:xemot
	A duck bit me.	I was bitten by a duck.
Manner:	pi:ptap joqih:do-kampe:	pi:ptappeh joqih:do-kampe:
	I was doing the chicken-dance.	I was dancing like a chicken.

II.3. Number

There is an exception to the general rules for number marking: for the dual form of paired body parts (of the form -t), simply replace -t with -w. Thus two:gaw pair of eyes vs. two:gat eye.

The V or C marker is used depending on whether the noun is vowel-final or consonant-final, respectively.

ka:ftayed (1) bird (Singular, Agent)
ka:ftawem (two) birds (Dual, Patient)
ka:ftasun with birds (Plural, Instrument)
ka:ftagahb no birds (None, Negative)
ka:ftaghas at many birds (Many, Location)
ka:ftapu some birds (Some, -)
ta:meneluk to (three) stones (Trial, Recipient)
ta:meneqas at many stones (Many, Location)
two:gawunneh with (a pair of) eyes (Dual, InstrumentP)
wu:siwasseh in (a pair of) ears (Dual, LocationP)

II.4. Adjectives

Adjectives precede their nouns.

Usually only one adjective is used at a time. If there are multiple adjectives modifying a noun, all except the first one will be marked with -dwo (and). So one says, for example, li:siy ma:roy-dwo xi:nihy-dwo ka:fta joce:red (lit.) A happy and little and blue bird was singing. More common is a construction such as ka:fta li:sinjer-ma:ronjer-xi:nihnjer-joce:red (lit.) A bird, being-happy, being-little, being-blue, was singing.

Examples:

le:vzoy pshe:kotem a pretty flower (Singular, Patient; minimal marking)
le:vzoyem pshe:kotiqem a pretty flower (Singular, Patient; fully marked)
ma:rob mih:fted three little mice (Trial, Agent)
faghre:nihsha gheh:zheghgish to the infinite dark-green stars (Infinite, Destination)
li:siy ma:roy-dwo ka:fter a happy little bird (Sing, Theme)

II.5. Class-Prefixes and Definiteness

If there are conjunctions (ow ow or za za or ja ja) they will occur between the class-prefixes and the nominal element. The conjunction ow is often pronounced /u/ after class-prefixes.

Class-prefixes will be indicated with a hyphen separating them. (They behave more like clitics than bound morphemes in certain contexts.)

Examples:

cu-jo:foy cu-ce:xta the big dog (c.f. jo:foy ce:xta a big dog)
cu-jo:foy xi:nihy-dwo cu-xo:rep the big blue sun
ki-ta:shof the coffee
ki-ow (kiu) ta:shof ki-ow (kiu) me:gof the coffee and the honey

III. Verbal Morphology

• Verb marking is, where S/O = Person or #-FullPerson: (Mood) - (Evid/Volit) - (Tense) - (Asp) - V: - S/O
• 1/2 drops most S/O (esp. ed); em often dropped for 3/4
• In the Archaic register, there is also S/O marking on any governing item (eg postpositions).

• Prefixes to a verb give all Tense/Mood/Aspect/Etc. information
• Suffixes on a verb convey Person/Theta information

III.1. Verb Suffixes

III.2. Mood

cu-ka:fta ce:red the bird is singing (Declarative)
cu-ka:fta nihce:red the bird is not singing (Negative)
sihce:ru sing! (Imperative)
cu-ka:fta mihce:red is the bird singing? (Interrogative)
cu-ka:fta xihce:red if the bird were singing or the bird would be singing etc. (Irrealis)
cu-ka:fta pihce:red [he told me] the bird was singing (Renarrative)

III.3. Evidential / Volition

cu-ka:fta sece:red the bird sings (Willing)
cu-ka:fta jece:red the bird reluctantly sings (Unwilling)
cu-ka:fta nece:red the bird must sing (Need)
cu-ka:fta lece:red the bird must sing (Need (duty))
cu-ka:fta cece:red the bird chirped [and gave itself away] (Accidently)
cu-ka:fta rece:red the bird chirped [insolently] (Deliberately)
cu-ka:fta qece:red the bird burst into song (Abruptly)

III.4. Tense

cu-ka:fta joce:red the bird sang/was singing (Past)
cu-ka:fta ghoce:red the bird is singing right now (Present)
cu-ka:fta soce:red the bird will sing (Future)

III.5. Aspect

cu-ka:fta ce:red the bird sings (Simple)
cu-ka:fta vice:red the bird is singing (Continuous)
cu-ka:fta zhice:red the bird keeps singing/sings all the time (Iterative)
ka:fta xice:red birds sing (Eternal)
cu-ka:fta qice:red the bird likes to sing/is a singing bird (Habitual)
cu-ka:fta gice:red the bird sang (a song) (Completed)
cu-ka:fta dice:red the bird started singing (Inceptive)
cu-ka:fta bice:red the bird finished singing (Cessative)
cu-ka:fta jrice:red the bird took up singing again (Resumptive)
cu-ka:fta shice:red the bird is about to sing (Prospective)

III.6. Complex Examples

ka:ftasha nexice:red all birds must sing [to be happy] (Need/Eternal)
cu-ka:fta qedice:red the bird burst into song (Abruptly/Inceptive)
cu-ka:fta nihpujovice:red I could hear that the bird was not singing (Negative/Nonvisual/Continuous/Past)

III. Locative Postpositions

• Local postpositions govern appropriate Theta.
• Examples:

  be:lazhas-ji:q in a tree (Archaic: gwe:lazyasas-dyi:ti)
  bo-be:lazhish-ju:re almost into the tree
  be:lazhasseh ixe:tlihka. He/she/it tends to hide in trees.
  bo-be:lazhin-nak ka:fta qegiqih:geda-repe: (suddenly) a bird flew off the top of the tree.

IV. Numbers

cu-wu:coy ce:xta the first dog
cu-jo:coy-wu:coy ce:xta the seventeenth dog
ka:ftawor bu:k two birds
ka:ftagahb ze:rk zero birds
cu-ti:xtabor cu-gu:k the three cats
cu-ti:xtabor cu-gu:kin from the three cats
ba:ypawor bu:k(i) qitu:femo I usually eat two eggs.

• Mass nouns (those in the of Class type ki-) cannot be marked for number

V. Questions

mihxe:lend? Is it raining?
mihnih:n-xihxe:lend? It's not raining, is it?
mihvicu:tu? Are you digging?
mihqicu:tu? Do you dig? / Are you a digger?
ce:xtaed mihgitu:xemu? Did a dog bite you?
libih-ce:xtaed mihgitu:xemu? Did some dog bite you?
bujih-ce:xtaed mihgitu:xemu? Did that dog bite you?
libih-pe:rozhat ta:mensem mihjojo:led? Was anyone throwing rocks?

xshe:ddeh gitu:xemu? What bit you?
xshi:shsheh qi:gu? Where are you going?
xshi:nneh qi:gu? From whence are you coming?
xshehce:xtaed gitu:xemu? What kind of dog bit you?

jogixeh:shshu? / gixeh:shshu? What did you do?
gixeh:shsh? / gixeh:shshi? / gixe:xehshsh? What happened?
cuce:xtaed mihgixeh:shshemu? What did the dog do to you?

V. Imperatives

• usually aspect-free; compl. asp. has great force; cont. asp. softens
• no evid. markers
• always marked for person (2/hon. usu.)
• for negative imperative, use nihn and V (or verbalnoun+nin+V)
• for honor. imperatives, use irrealis mood

sihqih:gu Go!
sihqih:gaxu Go! (pl)
sihgiqih:gu Get out!
sihviqih:gu Get going!
sihnih:nu-sihqih:gu / sihnih:n-qih:gu / nih:qihg sihnih:nuj Don't go!
xihqih:gmihr If Sir would go.

VI. Adverbs

• guvu: very
• mare: little
• to:d+Theta Temporal
• deh:g+Theta Locational
• ga:q+Theta Clause
• Adj+(xh/w/j)Vh(central/front/back) Adjective to Adverb

VII. Conjunctions

• and = ow X ow X / X X-dwo
• or(inclusive) = za X za X / X X-taz
• or(exclusive) = ja X ja X / X X-gaj

me:gof xo:ryeh-dwo honey and salt
ow me:gof ow xo:ryeh ow ta:shof honey, salt, and coffee
cu-wu:kta cu-ra:dufta-gaj either the duck or the frog
cu-ja wu:kta cu-ja ra:dufta either the duck or the frog
za pi:ptap za je:rtap chickens and/or squirrels

VIII. Derivational Morphology

• To form the Causative (V to V), prepose to the verb, either bo:- for intentional causation or be:- for unintentional/accidental causation.

  gibo:videdo I lit the fire.
  cegibe:vidigho I accidently caused the fire to start.

• To form a Middle or Reflexive (V to V), prepose xe:- to the verb.

  xe:lend It is raining.

• To form the Augmentative (V to V) prepose a stressed syllable with the initial consonant reduplicated and the vowel derived from the initial vowel of the verb:

  Initial	Added
  o,u	u
  e,i	i
  ih,eh	eh
  ah,a	ah,a

  mi:melgheyo I'm freezing! (c.f. me:lgh to be cold)
  za:zar to starve (c.f. za:r to hunger)
  xe:xixned It is a blizzard! (c.f. xne:d to snow)

• The Diminutive (V to V) is formed simply by preposing ri:xh- to the verb.

  xe:rixhlend It is sprinkling.
  ri:xhtuf to nibble/snack (c.f. tu:f to eat)

• To moderate adjectives (i.e. A-ish) (A to A) prepend xho- to the adjective

  xhova:lto warm (c.f. va:lto hot)
  xhomi:ro smallish

• To form a verb of being from an adjective (i.e. to be A), (A to V), postpose -nj to the adjective.

  me:nanjoxa (s)he is wise. (c.f. me:na wise)
  pshe:kot ile:vzonjera flowers are pretty (c.f. le:vzo pretty)
  te-lu:kawsu tle:conjer your hands are strong (c.f. tle:co strong)

• To form a verb of becoming from an adjective (i.e. to become A(er)), (A to V), prepose two:- and postpose -nj to the adjective.

  cuvitwo:menanjoxa it seems (s)he is becoming wise(r)

• To form a verb of ability (ie to be able to V), (V to V): add mu:- and -ihz around the verb.

  nihjeqimu:twomenanjihzeyo I just can't manage to become wiser.

• To form a verb from a noun meaning to make/create/produce N, (N to V) postpose -eb to the noun.

  ba:ypeb to lay an egg (c.f. ba:ypa egg)
  dozhu:neb to conlang (c.f. dozhu:n language)
  jla:gapeb to grow a beard (c.f. jla:gap beard)
  cu-ra:dufta qiqa:gebina The frog is one of the poisonous kinds. (c.f. qa:g poison)

• To form a noun which is filling a given thematic role of a verb, the so-called Theta-of-V (V to N):, postpose the appropriate stressed Theta marker to the verb. (If the verb ends in a vowel, -y- is inserted between verb and marker.)

  dozhu:n language (lit. that which is spoken) (Patient) (c.f. do:zh speak/talk)
  dozhunebe:d a conlanger (c.f. dozhune:b to conlang)
  cere:d singer (Agent) (c.f. ce:r sing)
  mihku:n soap (Instrument) (c.f. mih:k wash)
  joldi:sh target (Destination) (c.f. jo:ld throw)
  ceta:s kitchen (Location) (c.f. ce:t bake)
  crapi:gh cause for tears/reason for crying (Cause) (c.f. cra:p cry)
  guma:p attitude (Manner) (c.f. gu:m think)

• There is a limited form of Noun-incorporation (N+V to V) formed by prepending noun and Theta to the verb and appending ehl. Stress is on the noun.

  mo:rokunjikehl to hammer/hit with a hammer (c.f. mo:rok hammer and ji:k hit)
  ghro:qazhdenehl to snake-hunt (c.f. ghro:ta snake and de:n hunt)
  jo:dassosehl to laugh heartily (c.f. jo:dap belly and so:s laugh)
  no:dunjikehl to kick (c.f. no:dat leg ji:k hit)
  mih:kafedcer there is bird-singing (c.f. ka:fta bird ce:r sing)
  ka:fedcereyo I am experiencing birds' singing

• To nominalize an adjective into an Abstract-Property (A to N), postpose -kihx to the adjective.

  jo:bakihx cowardice (c.f. jo:ba cowardly)
  le:vzokihx beauty (c.f. le:vzo pretty)
  va:ltokihx heat (c.f. va:lto hot)

• There are a variety of noun-to-noun derivational processes, many of which could be translated as Noun-of-Noun, but in Dozhu:n are distinct. They are all formed by joining the two nouns with one of a variety of markers between. The stress is on the second noun. The markers are: made-of -at(eh)-; does -ir(ih)-; like/as -on(eh)-; for -ub(ih)-;

  shlutatehsre:j fruit-bread (c.f. shlu:tok fruit and sre:j bread)
  ghorokatehfte:nk sword of gold (c.f. gho:rokaf gold and fte:nk sword)
  tashofirbe:lazh coffee-tree (c.f. ta:shof coffee and be:lazh tree)
  shokyonlih:jta fire-fish (c.f. sho:kyaf fire and lih:jta fish)
  radubce:xta frog-(hunting) dog (c.f. ra:dufta frog and ce:xta dog)

• One can form a noun from noun and verb (V+N to N), the result is a particular kind of the noun which takes the given thematic role with respect to the verb. It is formed by adjoing verb to -w- to Theta to noun. Stress is on the noun.

  cerwedka:fta song-bird (Agent) (c.f. ce:r sing and ka:fta bird)
  cuzwighwu:kta fear-duck (Cause) (c.f. cu:z fear and wu:kta duck)
  megwinjve:ropta honey-bee (Source) (c.f. me:gof honey and jve:ropta bee)

• The final derivation process creates a Verbal Noun meaning the act of V-ing (V to N), it is usually only used in the archaic and formal registers. Any complements to the verbal noun must have their thematic roles indicated with the ThetaP markers. To form the verbal noun in the formal register, add an initial homorganic nasal consonant and reduplicate the initial vowel with -q- inserted. Stress is on the origianl vowel of the verb. For the archaic register, also prepend xheh-. The tense for this form is relative to the clause in which the verbal noun is sitting. (The verbal noun can take the verbal prefixes.)

  ndoqo:zhg / xhehndoqo:zhg preparation (c.f. do:zhg prepare)
  mboqo:r / xhehmboqo:r causation (c.f. bo:r cause)

Here are some typical nominal endings: (* indicates productive affixes). These affixes are usually dropped when the noun is involved in other derivational processes.

-(s)im	collection-of
-ozhat	*race
-p	body part
-t	(paired) body part
-af	*substance
-(F)ta	animal
-opta	*creepycrawly
-al	(*)duration

IX. Possession

In other words we have the following schemata for possession: (where PD indicates the Possessed and PR indicates the Possessor)

Alienable, Pronomial Possessor	NounPD-(Number)-FullPersonPR
Inalienable, Pronomial Possessor	Class-NounPD-(Number)-FullPersonPR
Alienable, Nominal Possessor	NounPR-PossP NounPD
Inalienable, Nominal Possessor	NounPR-Poss Class-NounPD-PersonPR

ce:xtamo my dog
ce:xtamow our(2) dog
ce:xtamob our(3) dog
ce:xtamos our dog
te-lu:kawsu your hands
cu-ka:ftaxxeh ba:ypa the bird's egg
cu-ka:ftax te-ce:gita the bird's foot
ka:ftax te-ce:gita the foot of a bird
ce:xtaxmo te-no:xa qipe:lnihnja. My dog's nose is (usually) black.

X. Demonstrative Adjectives

te-ga:q te-lu:tatmo this hand of mine (visible)

XI. Pronouns, Articles, Etc.

• There is no indefinite article.
• The definite article is preposed to all A/N; it is formed:
Class-(Number)-A/N
• Pronouns are of the form, stressed on Person: Class-FullPerson-Number

  zi-mo:y I
  zi-mo:w we(dual)
  zi-mo:b we(trial)
  zi-mo:s we(plur)
  te-ka:w they(2 body-parts, e.g. eyes)
  cu-ti:y it(4)(animate)

• Indefinite Particles: (For comparison, English has Some=SK/SU/IRN/Q/Cnd, No=DN, Any=DN/FC/Cmp/Cnd/Q/IN, Ever=DN/Cmp/Cnd/Q/IN)

  bujih- Specific known
  libih- Specific unknown/Irrealis non-specific/Question
  jarih- Irrealis non-specific/Conditional/Comparative
  nih- Direct negation
  fsakih- Indirect negation/Comparative/Direct negation/Free-choice
  kwenih- Free-choice

  Examples:

  bujih-pe:rozhat ta:mensem zhujojo:leda. Some person was throwing rocks (I saw it).
  libih-pe:rozhat ta:mensem cujojo:leda. Apparently some person was throwing rocks.
  libih-pe:rozhat / Jarih-pe:rozhat ta:mensem xihjojo:leda... If someone were throwing rocks...
  jarih-pe:rozhat ta:mensem xihjojo:leda... If someone was throwing rocks...
  libih-pe:rozhat ta:mensem mihjojo:leda? Was anyone throwing rocks?
  kwenih-pe:rozhat ta:mensem jo:leda. Anyone may throw rocks.

XII. Comparatives, etc.

• as A as N = N+ExtP A
• the A1-er the A2-er = A1+SrcP A2+DestP
• A-er than N = N+SrcP A
• the A-est (of N) = (N+SrcP) Class+A+qVn

zhu:rtingeh jo:foy je:rta a squirrel as large as a wolf
mih:ftingeh mi:roy wu:kta a duck smaller than a mouse
zi-mo:yingeh cu-ra:dufta jojo:fonjera the frog was bigger than me
le:vzingeh gheh:rishsheh the prettier the eviler

XIII. Special Classes of Verbs, etc.

XIII.1. Verbs of Motion

crazhe: swimming; jede: running; jloge: wandering; kafte: pulling; kampe: dancing; korte: pushing; nexe: carrying (on foot); noke: leading (on foot); pote: marching; raghe: crawling; repe: flying; soge: walking; talke: climbing (e.g. ladder/tree); tape: climbing, hiking; xtate: jumping; yezhge: riding; zheghe: carrying, transporting (vehicle); zhelne: turning; zhoge: driving.

joqih:go-jede:. I was running.
qih:go-jede:. I am running.
ta:menem giqih:geda-nexe:. She brought a rock.
cu-ka:fta qih:geda-repe:. The bird flies.
co:retasseh joqih:go-soge:. I walked in the plains.

XIII.2. Verbs of Placement

rike: pouring; rove: lying/laying; xege: sitting; xkazhe: standing; zhexe: hanging.

joje:no-xege:. I was sitting.
pahxko:rish(sheh) gitra:xkedat-xkazhe:. She set it on the table.
pahxko:rashsheh (go)je:ni-xkazhe:. It was standing on the table.
jotra:xkok-rike:. I was pouring it.

XIII.3. Verbs of Sense

twogo: sight; wusu: sound; yagha: taste; noxo: smell; lutu: touch; mugu: intuition; xanda: emotion;

pshe:kotap ju:fo-noxo:. I smell flowers.
pshe:kot xe:juf-noxo:. It smells of flowers. / There is a smell of flowers.
pshe:koter joju:fo-noxo:. I was sniffing/sniffed/smelled flowers.
wu:ktap ju:fo-wusu:. I hear a duck. / Sounds like a duck.
gheh:rihkihxin ju:fo-mugu:. I sense evil.
ca:pihy-noxo: ti:xta smelly cat

XIII.4. Facial Expressions

dlu:ghin frown; du:lon sad expression; qu:rijahn smile; ra:dix smirk; ro:gehxan surprised expression; ... ...;

qu:rijahnap mo:lgok. I smile.
ro:gehxanap jomo:lgok. I was giving a surprised look.
dlu:ghinap qimo:lgok. I usually frown.
du:lnap qimo:lgok. I usually look sad.

XIII.5. Weather Expressions

XIV. Examples

Old Examples

• be:lazhas-ji: In a tree
• bobe:lazhish-ju:re Almost into the tree
• fte:nker qisi:medo. I usually carry a sword.
• zipe:rozhatox fte:nker (jih:k). The man has a sword.
• fte:nker pe:rozhat si:med. A man is carrying a sword.
• cuka:fta pujovice:red. The bird was singing (I heard).
• xe:xixned. It is dumping snow.
• cuvixe:lend. / Cuxe:lend. It seems to be raining.
• vixe:lend. / Xe:lend. It is raining.
• se:rixhlend. It is sprinkling.
• xihgiga:goku... If I had given it to you...
• pshe:kot ile:vzonjera. Flowers are pretty.
• cuycererka:fta gice:red. The songbird sang a song.
• ka:fta jovice:red. A bird was singing.
• ka:fta joce:red. A bird sang.
• boyle:tan zhujosho:gera. The river used to flow. (I saw it myself)
• boyle:tan dujosho:gera. " (they say)
• boyle:tan zhuqisho:gera. The river usually flows. (I saw)
• boyle:tan fuqisho:gera. " (X told me)
• ce:xkar gizhu:vok. Ti:xtam zhugitu:xat. Zhugipi:si. I saw a dog. I saw it bite a cat. Then the cat sneezed.
• xihxu:co so:poj. I want to sleep.
• ta:menem giqih:ga-nexe:. pahxko:rish gitra:xkat-xkazhe:. Pahxko:rashsheh goje:ni-xkazhe:. She brought a rock. She set it on the table. It was standing on the table.
• joih:go-jede:. I was running.
• telu:kawsu tle:conjer. Your hands are strong.
• telu:katisu tle:conjer. Your hand is strong.
• He started laughing and she punched him.
• If I see him again, I'll punch him.
• When I see him again, I'll punch him.
• If I were to see him again, I'd punch him.
• xihjoxu:co joso:poj. I wanted to have slept.
• xihxu:co joso:poj I wanted to be sleeping.
• xihsoxu:co joso:poj I wanted to sleep.
• mo:rokunjikehlededokem. I hammer at it.
• kighdo:lozhat ixha:kihnjeka. Halfling-kind is good.