Dozhún

Sample Text

Sample Text (Babel Text)

Bopéroy boghémerox wénoy dozhúner zhéghoy dozháper p1jojîkat. Pérozhatped ?íxkish vi?îgu shínarassë córeter gí?as ginágat - givízhat. Giduzhash "cici ritamener s1klokamok - s1cicetamok." Ritamenun pamnafäb kalofun treyazh gigerat. Giduzhash "cici dologer jafener - dwo bonejonishshë s1klokamok ga?azhzhë x1gibom1gerakamo ga?azhzhë boperoy boghemerish nujo n1xekam." Ga?avvë m1r1m1lajushed perozhateddë pädologer päjafener - dwo gizhogha - x1gizhuvat. Giduzhi "wenoy dozhunap x1dozha digeraj ga?ushshë n1moghderäbka n1cuserjlonji. Dozhunemka s1gizhoghm1r - s1gizhmefm1r1t ga?azhzhë n1?icoynash." Ga?indë m1r1m1lajushed gi?in boperoy boghemerish nujo gixekm1r1t dologer bikloki. Ga?ingë babelap gzhakit ga?igë gi?assë m1r1m1lajushed boperoy boghemerox dozhuner gizhmefm1r1t. Gi?in boperoy boghemerish nujo gixekm1r1t.

I. Phonology/Orthography

I use the X-Sampa scheme for encoding IPA symbols into ASCII.

I.1 Vowels

(American, Colorado) English approximations to vowel sounds: i `need'; e `lay'; ä `mad'; a `caught'; o `coke'; u `noodle'; 1 `sit'/`soot'; ë `bug'/`mull'.

I.2 Consonants

• The orthographic 'n' may indicate a wide range of articulation points, depending on the context.
• Note that '?' is inconsistently notated in the orthography.
• (The change from Govun to Dozhun: r=l, b=j, d=g, p=c, t=k, v=zh, f=sh, z=gh, s=x)
• In the formal register, there is usually prenasalization of words and stressed and word-final vowels are nasalized. Thus, for example, káfta > [^Nka:~fta~] cuvixélend > [^Jcuvixe:~lend]

English approximations to consonant sounds: p `spit'; b `babble'; t `star'; d `saddle'; c `tree'; j `dry'; k `skunk'; g `giggle'; ? ` apple'; f `fat'; v `over'; s `sat'; z `ozone'; sh `shape'; zh `azhure'; x `Loch'; gh `haggle' (soft); h `ahead'; m `moon'; n `ran'/`in yer'/`rang'; w `womb'; y `year'; l `ball'; r `larder';

II. Nominal Morphology

II.1. Theta-roles

káfta crîsheda a bird is keeping itself afloat (Agent)
káfta crîshera a bird floats (Theme)
káfta crîshema a bird is kept afloat (Patient)
káftap crîshero I am floating like a bird (Manner)
káftun crîshero I float by means of a bird (Instrument)
káftush crîshero I am floating for the sake of a bird (Beneficiary)

The basic Theta-markers are given in the following table, they are suffixed both to nominal elements (nouns, adjectives, etc.) and also to verbs and various other elements of the language. The Full markers are the ones used in day-to-day usage. The Archaic and Formal registers are discussed elsewhere. Nouns and adjectives tend to drop word-final vowels when affixed directly with a Theta-marker.

Agent
The prototypical Agent is definite, animate, sentient creature who willingly, actively, bodily does the verbal action. For example: cu-káfted ?îg-repé the bird is flying; the bird is using its own power, of its own will, to propel itself through the air. You would not use the Agent role if the bird was thrown through the air by something else.

Patient
The prototypical Patient is an inanimate object which is physically or otherwise materially affected by the verbal action, if animate, the Patient is typically an unwilling or involuntary participant. For example, káftem cu-céxta gitúxem the dog bit a bird.; the bird is most likely unwilling quite affected by the dog's bite.

Experiencer
The Experiencer is typically that which sees, hears, or otherwise experiences the verbal action but is not directly affected: cu-céxtey pshékot júfap-noxó. The dog smells flowers..

Theme

Recipient
cu-céxtuk gigágo I gave (it) to the dog;

Beneficiary
cu-céxtush gicéto I baked (it) for the dog;

Instrument
Instrument indicates the tool or instrument used by the agent to accomplish the verbal act: mórokun ghró?azhdenehlo I am snake-hunting with a hammer; where the hammer is being used in the actual hunting.

Location
The Location is the spatial location where the verbal action occurs. This is usually a static location, i.e. the verbal action takes place entirely in the Location: bo-létas gibáypebo I layed an egg in the river; Note that often Location is further specified by an appropriate local post-position.

Path
bo-létac via the river;

Source

Destination

Purpose
káftazh cu-tíxta jocéred The cat sang for bird.;

Manner
wúktap ráduftap-gaj jo?îgo-kampé I was dancing like a duck or a frog;

Extent

Temporal
Temporal is used to mark expressions indicating when something occured: nískav cu-káfta p1céred the bird was singing at night; night is the time in which the singing occurred. Note that spatial expressions are not used in a temporal sense.

Possessor

Negative

Result

Cause

Force

Comitative

Measure/Material

II.2. ThetaP-roles

There is one idiosyncratic formation: the SourceP marker is -ingë (the expected marker would be *"-innë").

There are certain constructions (e.g. possessive) that require ThetaP-markings.

The distinction between Theta and ThetaP can be subtle. Nominals marked with ThetaP-markers tend to be viewed as less integral to the action. They may be incidental to the event described. For example, in

mórokun jíkmema I use my hammer to hit it.
(LIT: hammer-INSTR hit-1-PAT-3)

mórokunnë jíkmema I hit it with a hammer.
(LIT: hammer-INSTR_P hit-1-PAT-3)

Examples:

	Theta	ThetaP
Instrument:	mórokun jíkmema	mórokunnë jíkmema
	I hammer it.	I hit it with a hammer.
Temporal:	nískav gigéro	nískavvë gigéro
	I did my night-thing.	I did something at night.
Agent:	wúkted gitúxok	wúkteddë gitúxemot
	A duck bit me.	I was bitten by a duck.
Manner:	píptap jo?îdo-kampé	píptappë jo?îdo-kampé
	I was doing the chicken-dance.	I was dancing like a chicken.

II.3. Number

There is an exception to the general rules for number marking: for the dual form of paired body parts (of the form -t), simply replace -t with -w. Thus twógaw pair of eyes vs. twógat eye.

The V or C marker is used depending on whether the noun is vowel-final or consonant-final, respectively.

káftayed (1) bird (Singular, Agent)
káftawem (two) birds (Dual, Patient)
káftasun with birds (Plural, Instrument)
káftagäb no birds (None, Negative)
káftaghas at many birds (Many, Location)
káftapu some birds (Some, -)
támeneluk to (three) stones (Trial, Recipient)
támene?as at many stones (Many, Location)
twógawunnë with (a pair of) eyes (Dual, InstrumentP)
wúsiwassë in (a pair of) ears (Dual, LocationP)

II.4. Adjectives

Adjectives precede their nouns.

Usually only one adjective is used at a time. If there are multiple adjectives modifying a noun, all except the first one will be marked with -dwo (and). So one says, for example, lísiy mároy-dwo xín1y-dwo káfta jocéred (lit.) A happy and little and blue bird was singing. More common is a construction such as káfta lísinjer-máronjer-xín1njer-jocéred (lit.) A bird, being-happy, being-little, being-blue, was singing.

Examples:

lévzoy pshékotem a pretty flower (Singular, Patient; minimal marking)
lévzoyem pshékoti?em a pretty flower (Singular, Patient; fully marked)
márob mîfted three little mice (Trial, Agent)
faghrén1sha ghêzheghgish to the infinite dark-green stars (Infinite, Destination)
lísiy mároy-dwo káfter a happy little bird (Sing, Theme)

II.5. Class-Prefixes and Definiteness

If there are conjunctions (ow ow or za za or ja ja) they will occur between the class-prefixes and the nominal element. The conjunction ow is often pronounced /u/ after class-prefixes.

Class-prefixes will be indicated with a hyphen separating them. (They behave more like clitics than bound morphemes in certain contexts.)

Examples:

cu-jófoy cu-céxta the big dog (c.f. jófoy céxta a big dog)
cu-jófoy xín1y-dwo cu-xórep the big blue sun
ki-táshof the coffee
ki-ow (kiu) táshof ki-ow (kiu) mégof the coffee and the honey

III. Verbal Morphology

• Verb marking is, where S/O = Person or #-FullPerson: (Mood) - (Evid/Volit) - (Tense) - (Asp) - V: - S/O
• 1/2 drops most S/O (esp. ed); em often dropped for 3/4
• In the Archaic register, there is also S/O marking on any governing item (eg postpositions).

• Prefixes to a verb give all Tense/Mood/Aspect/Etc. information
• Suffixes on a verb convey Person/Theta information

III.1. Verb Suffixes

III.2. Mood

cu-káfta céred the bird is singing (Declarative)
cu-káfta n1céred the bird is not singing (Negative)
s1céru sing! (Imperative)
cu-káfta m1céred is the bird singing? (Interrogative)
cu-káfta x1céred if the bird were singing or the bird would be singing etc. (Irrealis)
cu-káfta p1céred [he told me] the bird was singing (Renarrative)

III.3. Evidential / Volition

cu-káfta secéred the bird sings (Willing)
cu-káfta jecéred the bird reluctantly sings (Unwilling)
cu-káfta necéred the bird must sing (Need)
cu-káfta lecéred the bird must sing (Need (duty))
cu-káfta cecéred the bird chirped [and gave itself away] (Accidently)
cu-káfta recéred the bird chirped [insolently] (Deliberately)
cu-káfta ?ecéred the bird burst into song (Abruptly)

III.4. Tense

cu-káfta jocéred the bird sang/was singing (Past)
cu-káfta ghocéred the bird is singing right now (Present)
cu-káfta socéred the bird will sing (Future)

III.5. Aspect

cu-káfta céred the bird sings (Simple)
cu-káfta vicéred the bird is singing (Continuous)
cu-káfta zhicéred the bird keeps singing/sings all the time (Iterative)
káfta xicéred birds sing (Eternal)
cu-káfta ?icéred the bird likes to sing/is a singing bird (Habitual)
cu-káfta gicéred the bird sang (a song) (Completed)
cu-káfta dicéred the bird started singing (Inceptive)
cu-káfta bicéred the bird finished singing (Cessative)
cu-káfta jricéred the bird took up singing again (Resumptive)
cu-káfta shicéred the bird is about to sing (Prospective)

III.6. Complex Examples

káftasha nexicéred all birds must sing [to be happy] (Need/Eternal)
cu-káfta ?edicéred the bird burst into song (Abruptly/Inceptive)
cu-káfta n1pujovicéred I could hear that the bird was not singing (Negative/Nonvisual/Continuous/Past)

III. Locative Postpositions

• Local postpositions govern appropriate Theta.
• Examples:

  bélazhas-jí? in a tree (Archaic: gwélazyasas-dyíti)
  bo-bélazhish-júre almost into the tree
  bélazhassë ixétl1ka. He/she/it tends to hide in trees.
  bo-bélazhin-nak káfta ?egi?îgeda-repé (suddenly) a bird flew off the top of the tree.

IV. Numbers

cu-wúcoy céxta the first dog
cu-jócoy-wúcoy céxta the seventeenth dog
káftawor búk two birds
káftagäb zérk zero birds
cu-tíxtabor cu-gúk the three cats
cu-tíxtabor cu-gúkin from the three cats
báypawor búk(i) ?itúfemo I usually eat two eggs.

• Mass nouns (those in the of Class type ki-) cannot be marked for number

V. Questions

m1xélend? Is it raining?
m1nîn-x1xélend? It's not raining, is it?
m1vicútu? Are you digging?
m1?icútu? Do you dig? / Are you a digger?
céxtaed m1gitúxemu? Did a dog bite you?
lib1-céxtaed m1gitúxemu? Did some dog bite you?
buj1-céxtaed m1gitúxemu? Did that dog bite you?
lib1-pérozhat támensem m1jojóled? Was anyone throwing rocks?

xshéddë gitúxemu? What bit you?
xshíshshë ?ígu? Where are you going?
xshínnë ?ígu? From whence are you coming?
xshëcéxtaed gitúxemu? What kind of dog bit you?

jogixêshshu? / gixêshshu? What did you do?
gixêshsh? / gixêshshi? / gixéxëshsh? What happened?
cucéxtaed m1gixêshshemu? What did the dog do to you?

V. Imperatives

• usually aspect-free; compl. asp. has great force; cont. asp. softens
• no evid. markers
• always marked for person (2/hon. usu.)
• for negative imperative, use n1n and V (or verbalnoun+nin+V)
• for honor. imperatives, use irrealis mood

s1?îgu Go!
s1?îgaxu Go! (pl)
s1gi?îgu Get out!
s1vi?îgu Get going!
s1nînu-s1?îgu / s1nîn-?îgu / nî?1g s1nînuj Don't go!
x1?îgm1r If Sir would go.

VI. Adverbs

• guvú very
• maré little
• tód+Theta Temporal
• dêg+Theta Locational
• gá?+Theta Clause
• Adj+(h/w/j)Vh(central/front/back) Adjective to Adverb

VII. Conjunctions

• and = ow X ow X / X X-dwo
• or(inclusive) = za X za X / X X-taz
• or(exclusive) = ja X ja X / X X-gaj

mégof xóryë-dwo honey and salt
ow mégof ow xóryë ow táshof honey, salt, and coffee
cu-wúkta cu-rádufta-gaj either the duck or the frog
cu-ja wúkta cu-ja rádufta either the duck or the frog
za píptap za jértap chickens and/or squirrels

VIII. Derivational Morphology

• To form the Causative (V to V), prepose to the verb, either bó- for intentional causation or bé- for unintentional/accidental causation.

  gibóvidedo I lit the fire.
  cegibévidigho I accidently caused the fire to start.

• To form a Middle or Reflexive (V to V), prepose xé- to the verb.

  xélend It is raining.

• To form the Augmentative (V to V) prepose a stressed syllable with the initial consonant reduplicated and the vowel derived from the initial vowel of the verb:

  Initial	Added
  o,u	u
  e,i	i
  1,ë	ë
  ä,a	ä,a

  mímelgheyo I'm freezing! (c.f. mélgh to be cold)
  zázar to starve (c.f. zár to hunger)
  xéxixned It is a blizzard! (c.f. xnéd to snow)

• The Diminutive (V to V) is formed simply by preposing ríh- to the verb.

  xérihlend It is sprinkling.
  ríhtuf to nibble/snack (c.f. túf to eat)

• To moderate adjectives (i.e. A-ish) (A to A) prepend ho- to the adjective

  hoválto warm (c.f. válto hot)
  homíro smallish

• To form a verb of being from an adjective (i.e. to be A), (A to V), postpose -nj to the adjective.

  ménanjoxa (s)he is wise. (c.f. ména wise)
  pshékot ilévzonjera flowers are pretty (c.f. lévzo pretty)
  te-lúkawsu tléconjer your hands are strong (c.f. tléco strong)

• To form a verb of becoming from an adjective (i.e. to become A(er)), (A to V), prepose twó- and postpose -nj to the adjective.

  cuvitwómenanjoxa it seems (s)he is becoming wise(r)

• To form a verb of ability (ie to be able to V), (V to V): add mú- and -1z around the verb.

  n1je?imútwomenanj1zeyo I just can't manage to become wiser.

• To form a verb from a noun meaning to make/create/produce N, (N to V) postpose -eb to the noun.

  báypeb to lay an egg (c.f. báypa egg)
  dozhúneb to conlang (c.f. dozhún language)
  jlágapeb to grow a beard (c.f. jlágap beard)
  cu-rádufta ?i?ágebina The frog is one of the poisonous kinds. (c.f. ?ág poison)

• To form a noun which is filling a given thematic role of a verb, the so-called Theta-of-V (V to N):, postpose the appropriate stressed Theta marker to the verb. (If the verb ends in a vowel, -y- is inserted between verb and marker.)

  dozhún language (lit. that which is spoken) (Patient) (c.f. dózh speak/talk)
  dozhunebéd a conlanger (c.f. dozhunéb to conlang)
  ceréd singer (Agent) (c.f. cér sing)
  m1kún soap (Instrument) (c.f. mîk wash)
  joldísh target (Destination) (c.f. jóld throw)
  cetás kitchen (Location) (c.f. cét bake)
  crapígh cause for tears/reason for crying (Cause) (c.f. cráp cry)
  gumáp attitude (Manner) (c.f. gúm think)

• There is a limited form of Noun-incorporation (N+V to V) formed by prepending noun and Theta to the verb and appending ël. Stress is on the noun.

  mórokunjikël to hammer/hit with a hammer (c.f. mórok hammer and jík hit)
  ghró?azhdenël to snake-hunt (c.f. ghróta snake and dén hunt)
  jódassosël to laugh heartily (c.f. jódap belly and sós laugh)
  nódunjikël to kick (c.f. nódat leg jík hit)
  mîkafedcer there is bird-singing (c.f. káfta bird cér sing)
  káfedcereyo I am experiencing birds' singing

• To nominalize an adjective into an Abstract-Property (A to N), postpose -k1x to the adjective.

  jóbak1x cowardice (c.f. jóba cowardly)
  lévzok1x beauty (c.f. lévzo pretty)
  váltok1x heat (c.f. válto hot)

• There are a variety of noun-to-noun derivational processes, many of which could be translated as Noun-of-Noun, but in Dozhún are distinct. They are all formed by joining the two nouns with one of a variety of markers between. The stress is on the second noun. The markers are: made-of -at(ë)-; does -ir(1)-; like/as -on(ë)-; for -ub(1)-;

  shlutatësréj fruit-bread (c.f. shlútok fruit and sréj bread)
  ghorokatëfténk sword of gold (c.f. ghórokaf gold and fténk sword)
  tashofirbélazh coffee-tree (c.f. táshof coffee and bélazh tree)
  shokyonlîjta fire-fish (c.f. shókyaf fire and lîjta fish)
  radubcéxta frog-(hunting) dog (c.f. rádufta frog and céxta dog)

• One can form a noun from noun and verb (V+N to N), the result is a particular kind of the noun which takes the given thematic role with respect to the verb. It is formed by adjoing verb to -w- to Theta to noun. Stress is on the noun.

  cerwedkáfta song-bird (Agent) (c.f. cér sing and káfta bird)
  cuzwighwúkta fear-duck (Cause) (c.f. cúz fear and wúkta duck)
  megwinjvéropta honey-bee (Source) (c.f. mégof honey and jvéropta bee)

• The final derivation process creates a Verbal Noun meaning the act of V-ing (V to N), it is usually only used in the archaic and formal registers. Any complements to the verbal noun must have their thematic roles indicated with the ThetaP markers. To form the verbal noun in the formal register, add an initial homorganic nasal consonant and reduplicate the initial vowel with -?- inserted. Stress is on the origianl vowel of the verb. For the archaic register, also prepend hë-. The tense for this form is relative to the clause in which the verbal noun is sitting. (The verbal noun can take the verbal prefixes.)

  ndo?ózhg / hëndo?ózhg preparation (c.f. dózhg prepare)
  mbo?ór / hëmbo?ór causation (c.f. bór cause)

Here are some typical nominal endings: (* indicates productive affixes). These affixes are usually dropped when the noun is involved in other derivational processes.

-(s)im	collection-of
-ozhat	*race
-p	body part
-t	(paired) body part
-af	*substance
-(F)ta	animal
-opta	*creepycrawly
-al	(*)duration

IX. Possession

In other words we have the following schemata for possession: (where PD indicates the Possessed and PR indicates the Possessor)

Alienable, Pronomial Possessor	NounPD-(Number)-FullPersonPR
Inalienable, Pronomial Possessor	Class-NounPD-(Number)-FullPersonPR
Alienable, Nominal Possessor	NounPR-PossP NounPD
Inalienable, Nominal Possessor	NounPR-Poss Class-NounPD-PersonPR

céxtamo my dog
céxtamow our(2) dog
céxtamob our(3) dog
céxtamos our dog
te-lúkawsu your hands
cu-káftaxxë báypa the bird's egg
cu-káftax te-cégita the bird's foot
káftax te-cégita the foot of a bird
céxtaxmo te-nóxa ?ipéln1nja. My dog's nose is (usually) black.

X. Demonstrative Adjectives

te-gá? te-lútatmo this hand of mine (visible)

XI. Pronouns, Articles, Etc.

• There is no indefinite article.
• The definite article is preposed to all A/N; it is formed:
Class-(Number)-A/N
• Pronouns are of the form, stressed on Person: Class-FullPerson-Number

  zi-móy I
  zi-mów we(dual)
  zi-mób we(trial)
  zi-mós we(plur)
  te-káw they(2 body-parts, e.g. eyes)
  cu-tíy it(4)(animate)

• Indefinite Particles: (For comparison, English has Some=SK/SU/IRN/Q/Cnd, No=DN, Any=DN/FC/Cmp/Cnd/Q/IN, Ever=DN/Cmp/Cnd/Q/IN)

  buj1- Specific known
  lib1- Specific unknown/Irrealis non-specific/Question
  jar1- Irrealis non-specific/Conditional/Comparative
  n1- Direct negation
  fsak1- Indirect negation/Comparative/Direct negation/Free-choice
  kwen1- Free-choice

  Examples:

  buj1-pérozhat támensem zhujojóleda. Some person was throwing rocks (I saw it).
  lib1-pérozhat támensem cujojóleda. Apparently some person was throwing rocks.
  lib1-pérozhat / Jar1-pérozhat támensem x1jojóleda... If someone were throwing rocks...
  jar1-pérozhat támensem x1jojóleda... If someone was throwing rocks...
  lib1-pérozhat támensem m1jojóleda? Was anyone throwing rocks?
  kwen1-pérozhat támensem jóleda. Anyone may throw rocks.

XII. Comparatives, etc.

• as A as N = N+ExtP A
• the A1-er the A2-er = A1+SrcP A2+DestP
• A-er than N = N+SrcP A
• the A-est (of N) = (N+SrcP) Class+A+?Vn

zhúrtingë jófoy jérta a squirrel as large as a wolf
mîftingë míroy wúkta a duck smaller than a mouse
zi-móyingë cu-rádufta jojófonjera the frog was bigger than me
lévzingë ghêrishshë the prettier the eviler

XIII. Special Classes of Verbs, etc.

XIII.1. Verbs of Motion

crazhé swimming; jedé running; jlogé wandering; kafté pulling; kampé dancing; korté pushing; nexé carrying (on foot); noké leading (on foot); poté marching; raghé crawling; repé flying; sogé walking; talké climbing (e.g. ladder/tree); tapé climbing, hiking; xtaté jumping; yezhgé riding; zheghé carrying, transporting (vehicle); zhelné turning; zhogé driving.

jo?îgo-jedé. I was running.
?îgo-jedé. I am running.
támenem gi?îgeda-nexé. She brought a rock.
cu-káfta ?îgeda-repé. The bird flies.
córetassë jo?îgo-sogé. I walked in the plains.

XIII.2. Verbs of Placement

riké pouring; rové lying/laying; xegé sitting; xkazhé standing; zhexé hanging.

jojéno-xegé. I was sitting.
päxkórish(shë) gitráxkedat-xkazhé. She set it on the table.
päxkórashshë (go)jéni-xkazhé. It was standing on the table.
jotráxkok-riké. I was pouring it.

XIII.3. Verbs of Sense

twogó sight; wusú sound; yaghá taste; noxó smell; lutú touch; mugú intuition; xandá emotion;

pshékotap júfo-noxó. I smell flowers.
pshékot xéjuf-noxó. It smells of flowers. / There is a smell of flowers.
pshékoter jojúfo-noxó. I was sniffing/sniffed/smelled flowers.
wúktap júfo-wusú. I hear a duck. / Sounds like a duck.
ghêr1k1xin júfo-mugú. I sense evil.
cáp1y-noxó tíxta smelly cat

XIII.4. Facial Expressions

dlúghin frown; dúlon sad expression; ?úrijän smile; rádix smirk; rógëxan surprised expression; ... ...;

?úrijänap mólgok. I smile.
rógëxanap jomólgok. I was giving a surprised look.
dlúghinap ?imólgok. I usually frown.
dúlnap ?imólgok. I usually look sad.

XIII.5. Weather Expressions

XIV. Examples

Old Examples

• bélazhas-jí In a tree
• bobélazhish-júre Almost into the tree
• fténker ?isímedo. I usually carry a sword.
• zipérozhatox fténker (jîk). The man has a sword.
• fténker pérozhat símed. A man is carrying a sword.
• cukáfta pujovicéred. The bird was singing (I heard).
• xéxixned. It is dumping snow.
• cuvixélend. / Cuxélend. It seems to be raining.
• vixélend. / Xélend. It is raining.
• sérihlend. It is sprinkling.
• x1gigágoku... If I had given it to you...
• pshékot ilévzonjera. Flowers are pretty.
• cuycererkáfta gicéred. The songbird sang a song.
• káfta jovicéred. A bird was singing.
• káfta jocéred. A bird sang.
• boylétan zhujoshógera. The river used to flow. (I saw it myself)
• boylétan dujoshógera. " (they say)
• boylétan zhu?ishógera. The river usually flows. (I saw)
• boylétan fu?ishógera. " (X told me)
• céxkar gizhúvok. Tíxtam zhugitúxat. Zhugipísi. I saw a dog. I saw it bite a cat. Then the cat sneezed.
• x1xúco sópoj. I want to sleep.
• támenem gi?îga-nexé. päxkórish gitráxkat-xkazhé. Päxkórashshë gojéni-xkazhé. She brought a rock. She set it on the table. It was standing on the table.
• joîgo-jedé. I was running.
• telúkawsu tléconjer. Your hands are strong.
• telúkatisu tléconjer. Your hand is strong.
• He started laughing and she punched him.
• If I see him again, I'll punch him.
• When I see him again, I'll punch him.
• If I were to see him again, I'd punch him.
• x1joxúco josópoj. I wanted to have slept.
• x1xúco josópoj I wanted to be sleeping.
• x1soxúco josópoj I wanted to sleep.
• mórokunjikëlededokem. I hammer at it.
• kighdólozhat ihák1njeka. Halfling-kind is good.